410 Journal of the Spanish Institute for Strategic Studies Núm. 12 / 2018 The push that catapulted the business sector and privatisation did not occur until the 1980s, in the context of the first stage of globalisation, at which time there was an increasing demand for satellite communications, especially television broadcasting and the creation of new companies providing satellite services. Two factors added to this: the changes in US space policy as a result of the Challenger space accident in 1986; and the rivalry triggered by the European space launcher Ariane that spurred on the United States in its bid to develop a domestic commercial space launch in-dustry. 52 The expansion of international networks has been such that during the Iraq War, eighty percent of communications were carried via commercial communications satellites.53 In fact at the beginning of the previous decade, the GAO (Government Accountability Office) urged that commercial satellites be identified as “critical struc-tures” and included in the National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection to ensure their protection against damaging or destructive actions.54 Authors such as Ram Jakhu and Joseph Pelton point out that global economic reces-sion served as a definitive stimulus for the development of the private space industry, as states and government agencies were forced to seek cheaper access to space solu-tions, understanding that only private enterprises could “implement radical industrial optimisation”.55 Space trade has been increasing over the years with significant growth in manufacturing volume, launches and capital. At the beginning of the decade of 2010, and in the context of a general economic slowdown worldwide, space activity was not showing signs that it had been affected by the financial crisis. None of the 38 private space operators worldwide that existed in 2011 recorded negative growth.56 Of the $314.17 billion in commercial revenue invested in the sector globally in 2013,57 three quarters corresponded to commercial activity, with just a quarter of the total from government 52 Fuller, J; Foust, J.; Frappier, C.; Kaiser, D. & Vaccaro, D., “The Commercial Space Industry: A Critical Spacepower Consideration”, in Lutes, C. D. & Hays, P. L. (eds.), Toward a Theory of Space Superpower. Selected Essays, Washington, D. C.: Institute for National Strategic Studies. National Defense University, 2011, p. 104. 53 DalBello, R., “Commercial Communication Satellites: Assessing Vulnerability in a Changing World”, in Logsdon, J. & Adams, G. (eds.), Space Weapons. Are they needed? Washington, D. C.: Space Policy Institute. The George Washington University, 2003, p. 271. 54 GAO, Critical Infrastructure Protection. Commercial Satellite Security Should Be More Fully Addressed, August 2002, <http://www.gao.gov/assets/240/235485.pdf> consulted: 15-9-2018. 55 Jakhu, R. S. & Pelton, J. N., “Private Commercial Space Enterprises and Global Governance System”, in Jakhu, R. S. & Pelton, J. N. (eds.), Global Space Governance: An International Study, Cham, Switzerland: Springer, p. 115. 56 Tortora, J.-J., (2014) “Space Industry and the Financial Crisis”, in Al-Ekabi, C.; Baranes, B.; Hulsroj, P. & Lahcen, A. (eds.), Yearbook on Space Policy 2011/2012. Space in Times of Financial Crisis, Vienna: Spring, 2014, pp. 177-178. 57 De Selding, P. B., “SES Positioned to Overtake Intelsat in Revenue”, SpaceNews, Paris, 21 February 2014, <https://spacenews.com/39577ses-positioned-to-overtake-intelsat-in-revenue/> consulted: 15-9-2018. Revista del Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos n.º 12 - Año: 2018 - Págs.: 397 a 431
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