247 Alberto Bueno The Culture of Security and Defence: A Proposal for... socio-military revolutions”62 which put pressure on the military institution to review its organisation and doctrine. All this occurred in societies that are now defined as post-modern63 and post-materialistic64, where traditional military values65 seem strange in the midst of ’post-heroism’66. These changes necessitated a drastic sea-change within armies, which were also forced to adapt to the new challenges that the democratisation of Spain brought with it -the financing of democracy or accession to supranational structures such as the Eu-ropean Union or NATO- as well as by the imperative and urgent need to revive their image, which had been tarnished by the stigma that they suffered from among a large part of the population due to the role that they had played in the previous political regime. Armies had focused their attention on the domestic sphere and on national policy and were reluctant, as demonstrated by Spain’s own foreign policy over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, to look beyond our own borders. These elements, which have led to changes in the concept of defence, allow us to thus go into greater depth as regards what its’culture’entails. It is defined in a straightforward manner by Fernández Vargas67 as “the degree of knowledge that an average citizen would possess about issues concerning national defence”, which, we would clarify on the basis of Laguna68, would relate to “national defence problems and current conflicts”. On the other hand, we share Marsal’s view69, that this corresponds in particular with the armed forces and how society evaluates them. This point is essential due to two circumstanc-es: one the one hand we have the new dimension and characteristics of the missions of the AF; whilst on the other hand we see the modernisation and transformation that have taken place since they are now a genuinely democratic institution and one at the 62 BAQUÉS, Josep, «Revoluciones militares y revoluciones en los asuntos militares», in JORDÁN, J. (coord.) Manual de Estudios Estratégicos Y Seguridad Internacional, Madrid, Plaza y Valdés, 2013, p. 143. 63 LIPOVESKY, Gilles, La era del vacío. Ensayos sobre el individualismo contemporáeno, Barcelona, Anagrama, 1986. 64 INGLEHART, Ronald, Modernizacion y posmodernización, Madrid, Centro de Investigaciones Sociológi-cas, 1998. 65 These would be determined both by the supremacy of order and the importance of power and security, according to Huntington, and also by economic, social and political conservatism in the words of Janowitz. HUNTINGTON, Samuel P., The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, Cam-bridge (United States), Harvard University Press, 1985; JANOWITZ, Moris, The Professional Soldier, United States, Free Press, 1960. 66 The paradigm of post-heroic warfare was underscored first of all by Luttwak as a consequence of the end of the Cold War and its associated strategic paradigm. LUTTWAK, Edward N., «A Post-Heroic Military Policy», Foreign Affairs 75 (4): 33–44, 1996; LUTTWAK, Edward N., «Toward Post-Heroic Warfare.» Foreign Affairs1 74 (3): 109–22, 1995. 67 Cited in FERNÁNEZ VARGAS, Valentina, and RODRÍGUEZ-TOUBES Jaime, «Diez reflexiones sobre la cultura de defensa en España», ARBOR Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, CLXXXIV Annex 2, 2008. 68 LAGUNA, op. cit. 69 MARSAL, op. cit. http://revista.ieee.es/index.php/ieee
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