581 Juan Ignacio Castien Maestro Modernisation and regression in Afghanistan... had chosen the more secular Shah9. This appeal to the powerful Muslim identity contributed positively to reinforcing the developing national identity and thus to the modernisation of the country. It also helped in marking the boundaries of this protonational identity from the Pashtun ethnic identity. Nonetheless, its links to a very conservative version of Islam clearly went against any quest for modernisation. The same happened with the connection to Sunnism, as opposed to Islam in general, which meant the Shia population – around 15% of the total population – became not just a heretical population but also a less national one, and even a potential fifth column at the service of neighbouring Persia. EXPERIENCES OF SELECTIVE MODERNISATION AND ITS LIMITS The response of the Mohammedzai leaders to the European advancement also presented a second aspect. They proceeded to a form of selective modernisation, i.e. to taking on certain western innovations that would best enable them to reinforce their power, while ensuring that there were in line with the conservative Sunnism to which they so strictly adhered. Dost Mohammed Khan and his son and successor Sher Ali Khan made a certain amount of progress in this aspect. Their reforms centred on the creation of modern military units equipped with European weaponry and trained by European instructors, although the results were rather mediocre. They introduced administrative reforms and lay the foundations for a national postal system and a ministerial organisation. All of this progress, however, was undone by the second Anglo-Afghan war, and the new Emir, Abdur Rahman Khan (1880-1901) had to start anew, almost from zero. His political cornerstone was, once again, the strengthening of the regular army in order to safeguard national independence. To achieve this, he extended the policy on recruiting foreign instructors and importing arms, and built factories to manufacture arms at home. Barracks were built and a logistics system to cater for the troops was introduced.10 The living conditions of these new soldiers were terrible, the discipline draconian, and desertion frequent. It is doubtful whether an army in such conditions could have successfully defeated another European invasion. The army did, however, turnout to be extraordinarily effective in subduing the numerous internal rebellions, which converted it into an 9 Gregorian, op. cit. pp. 77-78. 10 Abdu ar-Rahman, K. The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan. Volume 2, Adamat Media Corporation, 2005. pp. 14-60: Kakar, op. cit. pp. 192-200 http://revista.ieee.es/index.php/ieee
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