I N T E R N A T I O N A L A N A L Y S I S
teresting potential as a fuel for fission reactors, and of platinum, a
high-value metal with broad industrial applications. In addition, the
presence of water or building materials, such as iron, in some aster-oids
and comets, could facilitate both the construction of infrastruc-tures
in space and the survival of human crews during long stays
outside our planet.
In 2015, the United States launched the Commercial Space Launch
Competitiveness Act, which authorized U.S. companies to exploit com-mercial
resources in space. Luxembourg soon followed the idea, putting
itself forward as the lead nation promoting space initiatives of a commer-cial
nature, whilst Russia, India and China established their own national
regulations. The commercial
exploitation of resources lo-cated
in space might lead to
a real economic and techno-logical
revolution, although it
also has the potential to re-kindle
geopolitical tensions as
a result of the competition to
access resources.
SPACE COMMANDS
AND FORCES
When military satellites were
first sent to space, the ques-tion
arose as to which service
of the Armed Forces should
be in charge of the operations
in this new environment. The
air force was the best suited
due to a simple matter of
physical continuity, and in
fact, talk of aerospace power
soon began. Another possi-bility
was to integrate space
operations with the also
burgeoning strategic missile
forces, which was the solution
adopted by the Soviet Union.
Over the years, opera-tions
in space developed a
Spain in outer space
IN November 1974, Spain launched its first satellite into space,
the Intasat, for the scientific research of the ionosphere. This
first launch, carried out by the U.S. NASA, already demonstrated
the two realities that every medium-sized power, like Spain, should
bear in mind with regard to space exploration: on the one hand, it is
essential to be present in outer space; however, it is also very diffi-cult
to maintain this presence with national resources alone, and
it thus becomes necessary to resort to international cooperation.
Since that pioneer launch, Spain has delivered more than twen-ty
satellites, most of them designed for telecommunications, such
as the famous Hispasat series and the Hisdesat military satellites.
Today, Paz and Ingenio, the two observation satellites, are the most
important projects. They will combine both optical and radar obser-vation
for civilian and military use. In addition to purely national ven-tures,
Spain takes part in numerous collaborative projects with other
countries, ranging from Galileo, the European Global Navigation Sa-tellite
System, to the exploration rovers NASA sends to Mars.
The need to develop the 2017 National Security Strategy in
several fields led to the adoption of the National Aerospace Secur-
ity Strategy in 2017. This document considers airspace and ou-ter
space as one single domain. It pinpoints the threats that might
affect Spain’s interests in outer space, such as the destruction or
neutralization of satellites. And it underscores the importance of
the integrated action of all Public Administrations and the need for
international cooperation to ensure access security and the use of
outer space.
personality of their own, in
many cases leading to the establishment of specific military structures.
A “Space Command” to coordinate all the activities carried out by the
armed forces in space was usually established, even though it did not
have the organic command of the resources. This was the solution
applied by the United States in 1982 with the establishment of the US
Space Command, a strategic-level independent unified command.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia went a step
further, establishing its “Space Force” in 1992. This was an inde-pendent
branch from the Russian Armed Forces. However, the
Space Force did not last long as an independent entity, and was
integrated into the Strategic Missile Force in 1996. It became an
independent force once again in 2001 after Vladimir Putin came to
power. However, it was once more integrated into the Air Defence
Forces in 2011, and reincorporated with the Air Force in 2015, as
part of the new Aerospace Force.
The eventful history of the Russian Space Force clearly illus-trates
the difficulties of establishing an independent space force.
Its primary mission, maintaining and protecting the fleet of satel-lites,
is more technical than operational and requires fewer but very
specialized personnel. It is often more cost-effective to integrate
such personnel and all their support system, education and training
into an already consolidated
service than to establish a
new one and maintain it as
a separate structure. One
of the major criticisms of
President Trump’s recent
decision to establish a
Space Force as an indepen-dent
service is that it gener-ates
unnecessary bureau-cracy.
Despite the criticism,
the force has already been
established, although its ex-act
composition and specific
missions have yet to be de-termined.
The establishment of
the Space Force has also
rekindled the debate on the
militarization of outer space.
This is a controversial issue
as it seems to go against
the traditional trend that
considers this environment
a demilitarized space and a
global commons of Human-ity.
No one wishes to be left
behind in the event of a con-frontation
in space that may
neutralize satellite fleets.
However, it is no secret
either that such a confrontation would have catastrophic potential
should it ever occur.
The idea that outer space should be a peaceful environment
and a global commons of Humanity, which all nations should have
access to and benefit equally from, was one of the key issues of
the Outer Space Treaty, and this is precisely the spirit that should
remain. Nevertheless, the Treaty needs to be reviewed to be better
adapted to current technological possibilities, and establish regu-lations
to contain competition between nations, thus preventing a
conflict of potentially devastating consequences. L
August 2020 Revista Española de Defensa 43